Fig. 2

Haplotype diversity and distribution of P. falciparum genes Pfs47, Pfs37, and Pfs16 across Africa (based on nucleotide sequences). These haplotype networks graphically represent how each haplotype has been represented by different populations of parasites. The size of the pie represents the number of individuals with the haplotype and the size of each pie segment reflects the relative frequency of parasites originating from different populations for each haplotype. a Pfs47 had 32 haplotypes that are distributed among many populations. b Pfs37 had a single prominent haplotype, suggesting very low genetic variability. c Pfs16 also had a fewer number of haplotypes, suggesting less genetic variability compared with Pfs47 but higher than Pfs37. d Regional haplotype diversity analysis—box plots represent the distribution of haplotype diversity levels for Pfs47, Pfs37, and Pfs16 across three major regions: Central, East, and West Africa. Each box plot shows the median, quartiles, and potential outliers, providing a statistical summary of regional genetic diversity. ANOVA results below each plot indicate the statistical significance of differences in diversity across regions, with the P-values providing insights into regional variations in genetic diversity. (These calculations were based on nucleotide sequences and the calculations based on amino acid sequences are different from this.)